Hives (urticaria) are raised, itchy welts on the skin. They can be pink or red on lighter skin and harder to see on darker skin, and they often move around, fading in one place and appearing in another within hours. Hives are very common and usually harmless, but occasionally they are part of a serious allergic reaction.

Common causes

• Allergies to foods (such as nuts, shellfish, eggs), medicines, insect stings or latex
• Infections, especially colds and other viral illnesses. This is a common cause in children.
• Physical triggers: heat, cold, pressure on the skin, sweating, exercise or sunlight
• Stress
• In many cases, especially hives that keep coming back, no cause is ever found.

How long do hives last?

Each individual welt usually fades within 24 hours. Acute hives clear within 6 weeks, and most clear within days. Hives that keep coming back for more than 6 weeks are called chronic hives and should be checked by a doctor.

How to relieve hives

• Take a non-drowsy antihistamine. Cetirizine (Zyrtec), loratadine (Claritin) and fexofenadine (Allegra) all relieve itching from hives. Compare them in our Zyrtec vs Claritin vs Allegra guide.
• Cool the skin. A cool shower or a cold, damp cloth eases itching.
• Wear loose, soft clothing to avoid rubbing.
• Avoid triggers you’ve noticed, and avoid hot baths, alcohol and tight clothes, which can make hives worse.
• Try not to scratch. It can make the welts spread.

Call emergency services if hives come with

• Swelling of the lips, tongue, throat or face
• Difficulty breathing or swallowing, or wheezing
• Dizziness, fainting or a fast heartbeat
• Vomiting or severe stomach pain after eating or a sting

These can be signs of anaphylaxis, a life-threatening allergic reaction. If you have a prescribed adrenaline (epinephrine) auto-injector, use it and call for help.

See a doctor if

• Hives last more than a few days despite antihistamines, or keep coming back
• You also have a fever, joint pain or feel unwell
• Welts leave bruises, or each one lasts longer than 24 hours
• You think a medicine you’re taking caused them

More in our Allergies guide: all our articles and products on this topic in one place.

This article is for general information only and isn’t a substitute for advice from a doctor or pharmacist. Always read the label before using any medicine.

Minoxidil, sold as Rogaine, is one of the few hair-loss treatments you can buy without a prescription. Most people tolerate it well, but it helps to know what’s normal, what you can manage, and what means you should stop.

Common side effects

• Extra shedding in the first weeks. Many people notice more hair falling out 2 to 8 weeks after starting. This is usually a good sign: older hairs are being pushed out to make way for new growth. It normally settles within a few weeks, so keep going.
• Scalp itching, dryness or flaking. This is more common with the liquid solution, often because of the propylene glycol it contains, and slightly more common with 5% than 2%.
• Unwanted hair growth on the forehead or face, usually from the product running or being transferred on pillows or hands. It’s more common in women and with higher strengths.

How to manage them

• Apply only to a dry scalp, and only the recommended 1 mL. More doesn’t work better and increases irritation.
• Let it dry fully (2 to 4 hours) before bed so it doesn’t transfer to your face.
• Wash your hands well after applying.
• For itching, a gentle, fragrance-free shampoo can help. If irritation continues, a foam formula without propylene glycol may suit you better. Ask a pharmacist.
• Women: use the strength made for women, such as Rogaine 2%, unless a doctor advises otherwise. See Rogaine 2% vs 5%.

Rare but serious: stop and see a doctor if you get

• Chest pain or a fast or irregular heartbeat
• Dizziness or fainting
• Sudden, unexplained weight gain, or swelling of the hands or feet
• Severe scalp redness, burning or blistering

These happen because a small amount of minoxidil can be absorbed into the body, where it lowers blood pressure.

Other things to know

• Results take 2 to 4 months. If there’s no regrowth after 4 months, stop and talk to a doctor.
• Hair regrown with minoxidil is usually lost within a few months of stopping.
• Don’t use it if you’re pregnant or breastfeeding, or under 18.
• Keep it away from cats. Even small amounts of minoxidil are highly toxic to cats.

More in our Hair Loss guide: all our articles and products on this topic in one place.

This article is for general information only and isn’t a substitute for advice from a doctor or pharmacist. Always read the label before using any medicine.

Heartburn is a burning feeling behind the breastbone, often after eating or when lying down. It happens when stomach acid flows back up into the food pipe (oesophagus). Occasional heartburn is very common and usually easy to manage.

Common triggers

• Large or late meals
• Fatty, fried or spicy food, chocolate, mint, citrus and tomatoes
• Coffee, alcohol and fizzy drinks
• Smoking
• Being overweight, pregnancy, and tight clothing around the waist

Quick fixes

• Stay upright after eating. Don’t lie down for 2 to 3 hours after a meal.
• Raise the head of your bed by 10 to 20 cm (4 to 8 inches) if heartburn hits at night.
• Eat smaller meals, and finish eating 3 hours before bed.
• Notice your own triggers and cut back on them.

Medicines compared

• Antacids (such as calcium carbonate): work within minutes by neutralising acid. Good for occasional heartburn. Relief is short.
• H2 blockers (such as famotidine 10 or 20 mg): reduce acid production. Take 15 to 60 minutes before a meal to prevent heartburn. They last several hours.
• Proton pump inhibitors (such as omeprazole 20 mg): the strongest acid reducers, for frequent heartburn (2 or more days a week). Over the counter, they’re taken once a day as a 14-day course, no more than 3 courses a year without seeing a doctor. They take 1 to 4 days to work fully.

Ask a pharmacist which suits you, especially if you take other medicines.

See a doctor if you have

• Heartburn most days, or for more than 3 weeks
• Trouble or pain swallowing, or food getting stuck
• Unexplained weight loss
• Vomiting blood, or black, tarry stools
• Heartburn and you’re over 55, or it’s new

Call emergency services for chest pain that spreads to your arm, neck or jaw, or comes with breathlessness or sweating. It may be a heart attack, not heartburn.

Also see: constipation relief and how to stop diarrhoea fast.

More in our Digestive Health guide: all our articles and products on this topic in one place.

This article is for general information only and isn’t a substitute for advice from a doctor or pharmacist. Always read the label before using any medicine.

Vitamin C is an essential nutrient: your body can’t make or store much of it, so you need a steady supply from food or supplements. Most people get enough from a varied diet, but some benefit from topping up.

How much do you need?

• Women: 75 mg a day
• Men: 90 mg a day
• Pregnancy: 85 mg. Breastfeeding: 120 mg.
• Smokers: an extra 35 mg a day
• Upper limit: 2,000 mg a day for adults, from all sources

What vitamin C does

• Supports normal immune function
• Acts as an antioxidant
• Helps make collagen for healthy skin, gums, blood vessels and wound healing
• Helps your body absorb iron from plant foods

Best food sources

One orange gives about 70 mg. Other good sources are red and green peppers, kiwi fruit, strawberries, broccoli, Brussels sprouts, tomatoes and leafy greens. Cooking reduces vitamin C, so eat some fruit and vegetables raw.

Does vitamin C prevent colds?

For most people, no. Taking vitamin C regularly may slightly shorten colds, but starting it after a cold begins doesn’t seem to help much. People under heavy physical stress, such as marathon runners, may see more benefit.

Who might benefit from a supplement?

• People who eat few fruits and vegetables
• Smokers
• People with conditions that affect absorption

A 500 mg tablet once a day covers daily needs comfortably and stays well under the upper limit.

Cautions

• Over 2,000 mg a day can cause stomach cramps and diarrhoea.
• Ask a doctor first if you’ve had kidney stones, have kidney disease, or have iron overload (haemochromatosis).

These statements have not been evaluated by the Food and Drug Administration. This product is not intended to diagnose, treat, cure or prevent any disease.

This article is for general information only and isn’t a substitute for advice from a doctor or pharmacist. Always read the label before using any medicine.

Hair loss is common in women, and it can be upsetting. The good news is that many causes are treatable, and some resolve on their own. The first step is working out what kind of hair loss it is.

Common causes

• Female-pattern hair loss: gradual thinning over the top of the head and a widening parting, often running in families. It’s the most common cause and usually starts after 40, though it can begin earlier.
• Telogen effluvium: sudden, heavy shedding 2 to 3 months after a stressful event such as childbirth, surgery, illness, crash dieting or major stress. It usually recovers within 6 to 9 months.
• Iron deficiency and other nutritional gaps.
• Thyroid problems, both overactive and underactive.
• Hormonal conditions such as PCOS, or changes around menopause.
• Some medicines, and tight hairstyles that pull on the roots.

Does minoxidil work for women?

Yes. Minoxidil is the only over-the-counter treatment approved for female-pattern hair loss. Women can use the 2% solution twice a day (Rogaine 2%), or a 5% foam labelled for women once a day.

• Expect to wait 2 to 4 months to see results.
• Some extra shedding in the first weeks is normal.
• It works while you use it. Hair usually thins again within months of stopping.
• Possible side effects: scalp itching, and occasionally unwanted facial hair.

Compare strengths in our Rogaine 2% vs 5% guide.

See a doctor first if

• Hair loss is sudden, patchy, or you’re losing clumps
• Your scalp is itchy, red, scaly or painful
• You also have tiredness, weight changes, irregular periods or acne. A blood test can check iron, thyroid and hormones.
• You’re pregnant or breastfeeding. Don’t use minoxidil.

Everyday hair care tips

• Avoid tight ponytails, braids and extensions that pull on the roots.
• Use a wide-tooth comb on wet hair, and limit heat styling.
• Eat enough protein and iron-rich foods.

More in our Hair Loss guide: all our articles and products on this topic in one place.

This article is for general information only and isn’t a substitute for advice from a doctor or pharmacist. Always read the label before using any medicine.